BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY (by Mehezabin and Shraddha)

There are many branches of psychology; how you split them up will usually depend on which part of the world you are, even which university or institution you were trained at. The following are seen as the main branches of psychology:

• Clinical psychology - integrates science, theory, and practice in order to understand, predict and relieve maladjustment, disability, and discomfort. Clinical psychology also promotes adaption, adjustment and personal development. A clinical psychologist concentrates on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioral aspects of human performance throughout a person's life, across varying cultures and socioeconomic levels. In other words, clinical psychology is the scientific study and application of psychology in order to understand, prevent, and alleviate psychologically-caused distress or dysfunction (disability) and promote the patient's well-being and personal development.
  
  Psychological assessment and psychotherapy are central to the practice of clinical psychology. However, clinical psychologists are often also involved in research, training, forensic testimony, and other areas.


• Cognitive psychology - this branch investigates internal mental processes, such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language (how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn). This branch of psychology is closely related to other disciplines, such as neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics.
  
  At the center of cognitive psychology is how people acquire, process and store information. Many say that cognitive psychology is the study of intelligence. Practical applications for cognitive research may include how to improve memory, increase the accuracy of decision-making, or how to set up educational programs to boost learning.


• Developmental psychology - this is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that a person experiences over the course of his/her life span. Developmental psychology is often referred to as human development. It used to just focus on infants and young children, but also includes teenagers and adults today - the whole human life span. Developmental psychology includes any psychological factor that is studied over the life of a person, including motor skills, problem solving, moral understanding, acquiring language, emotions, personality, self-concept and identity formation.
  
  Developmental psychology also looks and compares innate mental structures against learning through experience. For example, babies are thought to be born with an LAD (language acquisition device) - an inbuilt ability to acquire language. A developmental psychologist will be interested in how the LAD works compared to the baby's development through experience, and how the two interplay. A developmental psychologist will be interested in how a person's characteristics interact with environmental factors and how development is impacted. Developmental psychology overlaps with several other branches of psychology, as well as other disciplines, such as linguistics.


• Evolutionary psychology - this looks at how human behavior has been affected by psychological adjustments during evolution. Just as biologists talk about natural selection or sexual selection during evolution, this branch of psychology applies psychology to the same way of thinking. An evolutionary psychologist believes, for example, that language or memory perception are functional products of natural selection.
  
  Some evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that language learning is a capacity we are born with, making language learning a virtually automatic process - but not reading or writing. In other words, they believe our ability to learn language is inherited while our ability to read and write is not (language learning will happen automatically, while reading and writing has to be taught). A person who is born in a town that speaks French will speak French by the time he is 20. However, if he is not taught to read he will be illiterate - language is acquired automatically if it exists around you, while reading and writing are not.
  
  An evolutionary psychologist believes that our human psychological traits are adaptations for survival in the everyday environment of our ancestors.


• Forensic psychology - this involves applying psychology to criminal investigation and the law. A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a science within the criminal justice system and civil courts. Forensic psychology involves understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to interact with judges, lawyers and other professionals of the legal system. Forensic psychology involves the ability to testify in court, to present psychological findings in legal language to the courtroom, and to provide data to legal professionals in a clear way.
  
  A forensic psychologist needs to understand the rules, standards, and philosophy of his/her country's judicial system.


• Health psychology - also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology. This branch observes how behavior, biology and social context influence illness and health. While a doctor treats the illness, the health psychologist will focus more on the person who has the illness, by finding out about their socioeconomic status and background, behaviors that may have an impact on the disease (such as medication compliance), plus the biological reasons for the illness. The aim of the health psychologist is to improve the patient's overall health by analyzing disease in the context of biopsychosocial factors. Biopsychosocial refers to the biological, psychological, and social aspects in contrast to the strictly biomedical aspects of disease.
  
  Health psychologists generally work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings.


• Neuropsychology - studies the structure and function of the brain in relation to clear behaviors and psychological processes. Neuropsychology is also involved in lesion studies in the brain, as well as recording electrical activity from cells and groups of cells in higher primates, including some human studies.
  
  A neuropsychologist will use a Neuropsychological Evaluation - a systematic assessment procedure - to determine the degree of any possible behavioral problems following suspected or diagnosed brain injury in a patient. When diagnosis is made, some patients are treated with an individualized cognitive remediation protocol - a treatment that helps the patient overcome his/her cognitive deficits.


• Occupational psychology (also known as industrial-organizational psychology, I-O psychology, work psychology, organizational psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, personnel psychology or talent assessment) - studies the performance of people at work and in training, develops an understanding of how organizations function and how people and groups behave at work. The occupational psychologist aims to increase effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction at work.
  
  The British Psychological Society says occupational psychology "is concerned with the performance of people at work in training, how organizations function and how individuals and small groups behave at work. The aim is to increase the effectiveness of the organization, and to improve the job satisfaction of the individual."


• Social psychology - uses scientific methods to understand and explain how feeling, behavior and thoughts of people are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other people. A social psychologist will look at group behavior, social perception, non-verbal behavior, conformity, aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are seen as key to understanding social behavior.
  
  Put simply, social psychology studies the impact of social influences on human behavior.

PSYCHOLOGY : An Introduction and History (by Mehezabin and Shraddha)

General Idea

Psychology is the science of the mind and behavior. The word "psychology" comes from the Greek word psyche meaning "breath, spirit, soul", and the Greek word logia meaning the study of something. 

The mind is highly complex and enigmatic. Many wonder how psychologists can study such an intricate, seemingly abstract and extremely sophisticated thing. Even if scientists look inside the brain, as in an autopsy or during a surgical operation, all they see is gray matter (the brain). Thoughts, cognition, emotions, memories, dreams, perceptions, etc. cannot be seen physically, like a skin rash or heart defect.

Experts say that the approach to psychology is not that different to other sciences. As in other sciences, experiments are devised to confirm or disprove theories or expectations. For a physicist, the raw data during the experiments may be atoms, electrons, the application or withdrawal of heat, while for the psychologist human behavior is the raw data.

For a psychologist, human behavior is used as evidence - or at least an indication - of how the mind functions. We are unable to observe the mind directly; however, virtually all our actions, feelings and thoughts are influenced by the functioning of our minds. That is why human behavior is used as raw data for testing psychological theories on how the mind functions.

Pychology and other Sciences

Many say that psychology lies at the crossroads of other disciplines, such as medicine, linguistics, sociology, biology, artificial intelligence, anthropology, sociology, and even history. For example, neuropsychology - which looks at how different brain areas are involved in memory, language, emotions, etc. - overlaps with biology and medicine. 

HISTORY 

In a philosophical context psychology was around thousands of years ago in ancient Greece, Egypt, India, Persia and China. Medieval Muslim psychologists and doctors had a more clinical and experimental approach to psychology - they were the first to have psychiatric hospitals.

Pierre Cabanis (France) created biological psychology in 1802. A physiologist, Cabanis wrote a well known essay called "Relations between the physical and moral aspects of man" ("Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme"). He interpreted the mind according to his previous studies of biology. He believed that sensibility and soul were parts of the nervous system.

1879, the birthdate of psychology - In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt, Germany, founded psychology as a truly independent experimental field of study. He set up the first laboratory that carried out psychological research exclusively at Leipzig University. Wundt is known today as the father of psychology.

Principles of Psychology, published by William James, an American philosopher in 1980, was discussed by psychologists worldwide for many decades.

Hermann Abbingaus (1850-1909), University of Berlin, was the first psychologist to study memory extensively. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), famous today even among lay people for the term Pavlov's dog, researched the learning process called "classical conditioning".

• Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Austria, developed psychoanalysis - a method of psychotherapy  His understanding of the mind was mainly based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. He focused on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories on sexuality and the unconscious mind became famous; probably because sexuality was a taboo subject at the time. The main principle of Freud's theory was that the unconscious is responsible for most thought and behavior in everybody and the disorders of the mentally ill. Freud had a considerable influence in psychiatrist Carl Jung (Switzerland).

• Structuralism vs. Functionalism - E. B Titchener (USA), a student of Wundt, strongly believed in structuralism. William James and John Dewey were strong believers in functionalism. Structuralism is interested in what is consciousness? while functionalism is interested in what is consciousness for? What are the purposes or functions of consciousness and basic mental processes?
  
  Structuralists and functionalists disagreed with each other passionately. Most agree there was never a clear winner in the debate - but their discussion did lead to a rapid spread of psychology in the USA, as well as some other parts of the world. Stanley Hall set up the first psychology lab in the United States at Johns Hopkins University.

• Behaviorism - in 1913 an American psychologist, John B. Watson, founded a new movement that altered the focus of psychology. Watson believed that structuralists and functionalists deviated too much from objective science. Put simply, Watson said that psychology should focus on the study of behavior because he believed that behavior was not the result of internal mental processes, but rather the result of how we respond to stimuli from the environment. Behaviorism focused on how people learn new behavior from the environment. Behaviorism became very popular in the USA. B. F Skinner followed in Watson's footsteps.

• Humanism - some psychologists viewed behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory as too dehumanizing. Rather than being victims of the environment or the unconscious, humanists said that humans are innately good and that our own mental processes played an active role in our behavior. The humanist movement valued highly our emotions, free will, and a subjective view of experience.

• Cognitive Theory - this started in the 1970s and is seen as the most recent school of thought in psychology. Cognitive perspective is much more objective and calculating than humanism. However, it differs from behaviorism in that it focuses on mental processes extensively. Cognitive theorists believe that we take in information from our environment through our senses and then process the data mentally by organizing it, manipulating it, remembering it, and relating it to information we had stored previously. Cognitive theory is applied to language, memory, learning, perceptual systems, mental disorders and dreams.

• Today - dominant movements do not really exist today in the way they used to. Behaviorism, psychoanalytic theory, humanism, and cognitive perspective are all studied currently by psychologists. Psychology has become much more eclectic (selecting what appears to be best from every doctrine, movement or school of thought).